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About the Author

Destiny drew Yashavant Kanetkar towards computers when the IT industry was just making a beginning in India. Having completed his education from VJTI Mumbai and IIT Kanpur in Mechanical Engineering he started his training company in Nagpur.

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Farewell 2K19❤ All the best my all seniors 👍👍 Corporate group of institutions Bhopal Civil batch 2015-2019 Thnx to all seniors, respected faculties and my classmates for this memorable event...

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कृपया पूरा लाइन dhayan से पढे फिर मुझे कमेंट कर के बताए की आपके लिए हेल्पफूल रहा ....

कई वर्ष पहले जे0 पी0 होटल वसंत विहार नई दिल्ली में आग की दुर्घटना हुई, जिसमें बहुत सारे भारतीय मारे गए लेकिन जापानी और अमेरिकन नहीं। जानते हैं क्यों? मैं आपको बताता हूँ:-

1. सभी अमेरिकन और जापानी लोगों ने अपने कमरों के दरवाज़ों के नीचे खाली जगहों में गीले तौलिये लगा दिए और खाली जगहों को सील कर दिया, जिससे धुआं उनके कमरों तक नहीं पहुंच सका। या बहुत कम मात्रा में पहुंचा।

2. इन सभी विदेशी मेहमानों ने अपनी नाक पर गीले रुमाल बांध लिए, जिससे उनके फेफड़ों में धुआं प्रवेश न कर सके।

3. सभी विदेशी मेहमान अपने अपने कमरों के फर्श पर औंधे लेट गए। (क्योंकि धुआं हमेशा ऊपर की ओर उठता है)

इस प्रकार जब तक अग्निशमन विभाग के कर्मचारी आये, तब तक वे अपने आपको जीवित रख पाने में सफल रहे।

जबकि होटल के भारतीय मेहमानों को इन सुरक्षा उपायों के बारे में पता ही नहीं था इसलिए वे इधर से उधर भागने लगे और उनके फेफड़ों में धुआं भर गया और कुछ समय में ही उनकी मौत हो गई।

अभी कल (24.05.2019) को सूरत (गुजरात) के एक कोचिंग सेंटर में आग की दुर्घटना हुई जिसमें कई बच्चों की जान इस अज्ञानता और भगदड़ के कारण हो गई। यदि उन्हें इन सुरक्षा उपायों के बारे में जानकारी होती तो शायद इतनी बड़ी संख्या में बच्चों की जान न जाती।

याद रखें, आग लगने की स्थिति में ज़्यादातर मौतें शरीर में धुआं जाने से होती हैं, जबकि आग के कारण कम होती हैं।

क्योंकि आग की स्थिति में हम लोग धैर्य से काम नहीं लेते हैं और इधर से उधर भागने लगते हैं। भागने से हमारी सांसें तेज़ हो जाती हैं जिसके कारण बहुत सारा धुआं हमारे फेफड़ों में प्रवेश कर जाता है और हम बेहोश हो जाते हैं और ज़मीन पर गिर जाते हैं तथा फिर आग की लपटों से घिर जाते हैं।

इसलिए आग लगने की स्थिति में ये सुरक्षा उपाय अपनाएं:-

1. भगदड़ न मचाएं और अपने होश कायम रखें ताकि आप दूसरों की मदद कर सकें।

2. अपने नाक पर गीला रुमाल या गीला लेकिन घना कपड़ा बांधें। तथा फर्श पर लेट जाएं।

3. यदि आप किसी कमरे में बंद हों तो उसके खिड़की दरवाज़े बंद कर दें तथा उनके नीचे या ऊपर या कहीं से भी धुआं आने की संभावना हो तो उस जगह को भी गीले कपड़े से सील कर दें।

4 अपने आसपास के लोगों से भी ऐसा ही करने को कहें।

5. अग्निशमन की सहायता की प्रतीक्षा करें। याद रखें, अग्निशमन वाले प्रत्येक कमरे की जांच करते हैं और वे फंसे हुए व्यक्तियों को ढूंढ लेंगे।

6. यदि आपका मोबाइल काम कर रहा हो तो आप लगातार 100, 101 या 102 पर मदद के लिए कॉल करते रहें। उन्हें आप अपने स्थान की जानकारी भी दें। वे आप तक सबसे पहले पहुंचेंगे।

यह मैसेज लिखने में मुझे 30 मिनेट लगे। आप इस मैसेज को अपने प्रियजनों तक कुछ सेकंड में पहुंचा सकते हैं।

दुर्घटना में कोई भी फंस सकता है। इसलिए सुरक्षा उपायों की जानकारी सबको अवश्य होनी चाहिए।

फालतू message तो सभी फॉरवर्ड करते रहते हैं। देखता हूँ, इस जानकारी से भरपूर मैसेज को आप कहाँ तक भेजते हैं।

मेरी सलाह है, आपके हर प्रियजनों तक पहुंचना चाहिए।

धन्यबाद

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FIFTH EDITION

COMPUTER NETWORKS

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COMPUTER NETWORKS

FIFTH EDITION

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COMPUTER NETWORKS

CONTENTS

PREFACE xix

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS, 3

1.1.1 Business Applications, 3 1.1.2 Home Applications, 6 1.1.3 Mobile Users, 10 1.1.4 Social Issues, 14

1.2 NETWORK HARDWARE, 17

1.2.1 Personal Area Networks, 18 1.2.2 Local Area Networks, 19 1.2.3 Metropolitan Area Networks, 23 1.2.4 Wide Area Networks, 23 1.2.5 Internetworks, 28

1.3 NETWORK SOFTWARE, 29

1.3.1 Protocol Hierarchies, 29 1.3.2 Design Issues for the Layers, 33 1.3.3 Connection-Oriented Versus Connectionless Service, 35 1.3.4 Service Primitives, 38 1.3.5 The Relationship of Services to Protocols, 40

1.4 REFERENCE MODELS, 41

1.4.1 The OSI Reference Model, 41 1.4.2 The TCP/IP Reference Model, 45 1.4.3 The Model Used in This Book, 48

vii

viii CONTENTS

1.4.4 A Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models*, 49 1.4.5 A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols*, 51 1.4.6 A Critique of the TCP/IP Reference Model*, 53

1.5 EXAMPLE NETWORKS, 54 1.5.1 The Internet, 54 1.5.2 Third-Generation Mobile Phone Networks*, 65 1.5.3 Wireless LANs: 802.11*, 70 1.5.4 RFID and Sensor Networks*, 73

1.6 NETWORK STANDARDIZATION*, 75

1.6.1 Who’s Who in the Telecommunications World, 77 1.6.2 Who’s Who in the International Standards World, 78 1.6.3 Who’s Who in the Internet Standards World, 80

1.7 METRIC UNITS, 82

1.8 OUTLINE OF THE REST OF THE BOOK, 83

1.9 SUMMARY, 84

2 THE PHYSICAL LAYER 89

2.1 THE THEORETICAL BASIS FOR DATA COMMUNICATION, 90

2.1.1 Fourier Analysis, 90 2.1.2 Bandwidth-Limited Signals, 90 2.1.3 The Maximum Data Rate of a Channel, 94

2.2 GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA, 95

2.2.1 Magnetic Media, 95 2.2.2 Twisted Pairs, 96 2.2.3 Coaxial Cable, 97 2.2.4 Power Lines, 98 2.2.5 Fiber Optics, 99

2.3 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION, 105

2.3.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum, 105 2.3.2 Radio Transmission, 109 2.3.3 Microwave Transmission, 110 2.3.4 Infrared Transmission, 114 2.3.5 Light Transmission, 114

CONTENTS ix

2.4 COMMUNICATION SATELLITES*, 116 2.4.1 Geostationary Satellites, 117 2.4.2 Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites, 121 2.4.3 Low-Earth Orbit Satellites, 121 2.4.4 Satellites Versus Fiber, 123

2.5 DIGITAL MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING, 125

2.5.1 Baseband Transmission, 125 2.5.2 Passband Transmission, 130 2.5.3 Frequency Division Multiplexing, 132 2.5.4 Time Division Multiplexing, 135 2.5.5 Code Division Multiplexing, 135

2.6 THE PUBLIC SWITCHED TELEPHONE NETWORK, 138

2.6.1 Structure of the Telephone System, 139 2.6.2 The Politics of Telephones, 142 2.6.3 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL, and Fiber, 144 2.6.4 Trunks and Multiplexing, 152 2.6.5 Switching, 161

2.7 THE MOBILE TELEPHONE SYSTEM*, 164

2.7.1 First-Generation (coco1G) Mobile Phones: Analog Voice, 166 2.7.2 Second-Generation (2G) Mobile Phones: Digital Voice, 170 2.7.3 Third-Generation (3G) Mobile Phones: Digital Voice and Data, 174

2.8 CABLE TELEVISION*, 179

2.8.1 Community Antenna Television, 179 2.8.2 Internet over Cable, 180 2.8.3 Spectrum Allocation, 182 2.8.4 Cable Modems, 183 2.8.5 ADSL Versus Cable, 185

2.9 SUMMARY, 186

3 THE DATA LINK LAYER 193

3.1 DATA LINK LAYER DESIGN ISSUES, 194

3.1.1 Services Provided to the Network Layer, 194 3.1.2 Framing, 197 3.1.3 Error Control, 200 3.1.4 Flow Control, 201

x CONTENTS

3.2 ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION, 202

3.2.1 Error-Correcting Codes, 204 3.2.2 Error-Detecting Codes, 209

3.3 ELEMENTARY DATA LINK PROTOCOLS, 215

3.3.1 A Utopian Simplex Protocol, 220 3.3.2 A Simplex Stop-and-Wait Protocol for an Error-Free Channel, 221 3.3.3 A Simplex Stop-and-Wait Protocol for a Noisy Channel, 222

3.4 SLIDING WINDOW PROTOCOLS, 226

3.4.1 A One-Bit Sliding Window Protocol, 229 3.4.2 A Protocol Using Go-Back-N, 232 3.4.3 A Protocol Using Selective Repeat, 239

3.5 EXAMPLE DATA LINK PROTOCOLS, 244

3.5.1 Packet over SONET, 245 3.5.2 ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loop), 248

3.6 SUMMARY, 251

4 THE MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL SUBLAYER 257

4.1 THE CHANNEL ALLOCATION PROBLEM, 258

4.1.1 Static Channel Allocation, 258 4.1.2 Assumptions for Dynamic Channel Allocation, 260

4.2 MULTIPLE ACCESS PROTOCOLS, 261

4.2.1 ALOHA, 262 4.2.2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols, 266 4.2.3 Collision-Free Protocols, 269 4.2.4 Limited-Contention Protocols, 274 4.2.5 Wireless LAN Protocols, 277

4.3 ETHERNET, 280

4.3.1 Classic Ethernet Physical Layer, 281 4.3.2 Classic Ethernet MAC Sublayer Protocol, 282 4.3.3 Ethernet Performance, 286 4.3.4 Switched Ethernet, 288

CONTENTS xi

4.3.5 Fast Ethernet, 290 4.3.6 Gigabit Ethernet, 293 4.3.7 10-Gigabit Ethernet, 296 4.3.8 Retrospective on Ethernet, 298

4.4 WIRELESS LANS, 299

4.4.1 The 802.11 Architecture and Protocol Stack, 299 4.4.2 The 802.11 Physical Layer, 301 4.4.3 The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol, 303 4.4.4 The 802.11 Frame Structure, 309 4.4.5 Services, 311

4.5 BROADBAND WIRELESS*, 312

4.5.1 Comparison of 802.16 with 802.11 and 3G, 313 4.5.2 The 802.16 Architecture and Protocol Stack, 314 4.5.3 The 802.16 Physical Layer, 316 4.5.4 The 802.16 MAC Sublayer Protocol, 317 4.5.5 The 802.16 Frame Structure, 319

4.6 BLUETOOTH*, 320

4.6.1 Bluetooth Architecture, 320 4.6.2 Bluetooth Applications, 321 4.6.3 The Bluetooth Protocol Stack, 322 4.6.4 The Bluetooth Radio Layer, 324 4.6.5 The Bluetooth Link Layers, 324 4.6.6 The Bluetooth Frame Structure, 325

4.7 RFID*, 327

4.7.1 EPC Gen 2 Architecture, 327 4.7.2 EPC Gen 2 Physical Layer, 328 4.7.3 EPC Gen 2 Tag Identification Layer, 329 4.7.4 Tag Identification Message Formats, 331

4.8 DATA LINK LAYER SWITCHING, 332

4.8.1 Uses of Bridges, 332 4.8.2 Learning Bridges, 334 4.8.3 Spanning Tree Bridges, 337 4.8.4 Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges, Switches, Routers, and Gateways, 340 4.8.5 Virtual LANs, 342

4.9 SUMMARY, 349

xii CONTENTS 5 THE NETWORK LAYER 355

5.1 NETWORK LAYER DESIGN ISSUES, 355

5.1.1 Store-and-Forward Packet Switching, 356 5.1.2 Services Provided to the Transport Layer, 356 5.1.3 Implementation of Connectionless Service, 358 5.1.4 Implementation of Connection-Oriented Service, 359 5.1.5 Comparison of Virtual-Circuit and Datagram Networks, 361

5.2 ROUTING ALGORITHMS, 362

5.2.1 The Optimality Principle, 364 5.2.2 Shortest Path Algorithm, 366 5.2.3 Flooding, 368 5.2.4 Distance Vector Routing, 370 5.2.5 Link State Routing, 373 5.2.6 Hierarchical Routing, 378 5.2.7 Broadcast Routing, 380 5.2.8 Multicast Routing, 382 5.2.9 Anycast Routing, 385 5.2.10 Routing for Mobile Hosts, 386 5.2.11 Routing in Ad Hoc Networks, 389

5.3 CONGESTION CONTROL ALGORITHMS, 392

5.3.1 Approaches to Congestion Control, 394 5.3.2 Traffic-Aware Routing, 395 5.3.3 Admission Control, 397 5.3.4 Traffic Throttling, 398 5.3.5 Load Shedding, 401

5.4 QUALITY OF SERVICE, 404

5.4.1 Application Requirements, 405 5.4.2 Traffic Shaping, 407 5.4.3 Packet Scheduling, 411 5.4.4 Admission Control, 415 5.4.5 Integrated Services, 418 5.4.6 Differentiated Services, 421

5.5 INTERNETWORKING, 424

5.5.1 How Networks Differ, 425 5.5.2 How Networks Can Be Connected, 426 5.5.3 Tunneling, 429

CONTENTS xiii

5.5.4 Internetwork Routing, 431 5.5.5 Packet Fragmentation, 432

5.6 THE NETWORK LAYER IN THE INTERNET, 436

5.6.1 The IP Version 4 Protocol, 439 5.6.2 IP Addresses, 442 5.6.3 IP Version 6, 455 5.6.4 Internet Control Protocols, 465 5.6.5 Label Switching and MPLS, 470 5.6.6 OSPF—An Interior Gateway Routing Protocol, 474 5.6.7 BGP—The Exterior Gateway Routing Protocol, 479 5.6.8 Internet Multicasting, 484 5.6.9 Mobile IP, 485

5.7 SUMMARY, 488

6 THE TRANSPORT LAYER 495

6.1 THE TRANSPORT SERVICE, 495

6.1.1 Services Provided to the Upper Layers, 496 6.1.2 Transport Service Primitives, 498 6.1.3 Berkeley Sockets, 500 6.1.4 An Example of Socket Programming: An Internet File Server, 503

6.2 ELEMENTS OF TRANSPORT PROTOCOLS, 507

6.2.1 Addressing, 509 6.2.2 Connection Establishment, 512 6.2.3 Connection Release, 517 6.2.4 Error Control and Flow Control, 522 6.2.5 Multiplexing, 527 6.2.6 Crash Recovery, 527

6.3 CONGESTION CONTROL, 530

6.3.1 Desirable Bandwidth Allocation, 531 6.3.2 Regulating the Sending Rate, 535 6.3.3 Wireless Issues, 539

6.4 THE INTERNET TRANSPORT PROTOCOLS: UDP, 541

6.4.1 Introduction to UDP, 541 6.4.2 Remote Procedure Call, 543 6.4.3 Real-Time Transport Protocols, 546

xiv CONTENTS

6.5 THE INTERNET TRANSPORT PROTOCOLS: TCP, 552

6.5.1 Introduction to TCP, 552 6.5.2 The TCP Service Model, 553 6.5.3 The TCP Protocol, 556 6.5.4 The TCP Segment Header, 557 6.5.5 TCP Connection Establishment, 560 6.5.6 TCP Connection Release, 562 6.5.7 TCP Connection Management Modeling, 562 6.5.8 TCP Sliding Window, 565 6.5.9 TCP Timer Management, 568 6.5.10 TCP Congestion Control, 571 6.5.11 The Future of TCP, 581

6.6 PERFORMANCE ISSUES*, 582

6.6.1 Performance Problems in Computer Networks, 583 6.6.2 Network Performance Measurement, 584 6.6.3 Host Design for Fast Networks, 586 6.6.4 Fast Segment Processing, 590 6.6.5 Header Compression, 593 6.6.6 Protocols for Long Fat Networks, 595

6.7 DELAY-TOLERANT NETWORKING*, 599

6.7.1 DTN Architecture, 600 6.7.2 The Bundle Protocol, 603

6.8 SUMMARY, 605

7 THE APPLICATION LAYER 611

7.1 DNS—THE DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM, 611

7.1.1 The DNS Name Space, 612 7.1.2 Domain Resource Records, 616 7.1.3 Name Servers, 619

7.2 ELECTRONIC MAIL*, 623

7.2.1 Architecture and Services, 624 7.2.2 The User Agent, 626 7.2.3 Message Formats, 630 7.2.4 Message Transfer, 637 7.2.5 Final Delivery, 643

CONTENTS xv

7.3 THE WORLD WIDE WEB, 646

7.3.1 Architectural Overview, 647 7.3.2 Static Web Pages, 662 7.3.3 Dynamic Web Pages and Web Applications, 672 7.3.4 HTTP—The HyperText Transfer Protocol, 683 7.3.5 The Mobile Web, 693 7.3.6 Web Search, 695

7.4 STREAMING AUDIO AND VIDEO, 697

7.4.1 Digital Audio, 699 7.4.2 Digital Video, 704 7.4.3 Streaming Stored Media, 713 7.4.4 Streaming Live Media, 721 7.4.5 Real-Time Conferencing, 724

7.5 CONTENT DELIVERY, 734

7.5.1 Content and Internet Traffic, 736 7.5.2 Server Farms and Web Proxies, 738 7.5.3 Content Delivery Networks, 743 7.5.4 Peer-to-Peer Networks, 748

7.6 SUMMARY, 757

8 NETWORK SECURITY 763

8.1 CRYPTOGRAPHY, 766

8.1.1 Introduction to Cryptography, 767 8.1.2 Substitution Ciphers, 769 8.1.3 Transposition Ciphers, 771 8.1.4 One-Time Pads, 772 8.1.5 Two Fundamental Cryptographic Principles, 776

8.2 SYMMETRIC-KEY ALGORITHMS, 778

8.2.1 DES—The Data Encryption Standard, 780 8.2.2 AES—The Advanced Encryption Standard, 783 8.2.3 Cipher Modes, 787 8.2.4 Other Ciphers, 792 8.2.5 Cryptanalysis, 792

xvi CONTENTS

8.3 PUBLIC-KEY ALGORITHMS, 793

8.3.1 RSA, 794 8.3.2 Other Public-Key Algorithms, 796

8.4 DIGITAL SIGNATURES, 797

8.4.1 Symmetric-Key Signatures, 798 8.4.2 Public-Key Signatures, 799 8.4.3 Message Digests, 800 8.4.4 The Birthday Attack, 804

8.5 MANAGEMENT OF PUBLIC KEYS, 806

8.5.1 Certificates, 807 8.5.2 X.509, 809 8.5.3 Public Key Infrastructures, 810

8.6 COMMUNICATION SECURITY, 813

8.6.1 IPsec, 814 8.6.2 Firewalls, 818 8.6.3 Virtual Private Networks, 821 8.6.4 Wireless Security, 822

8.7 AUTHENTICATION PROTOCOLS, 827

8.7.1 Authentication Based on a Shared Secret Key, 828 8.7.2 Establishing a Shared Key: The Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange, 833 8.7.3 Authentication Using a Key Distribution Center, 835 8.7.4 Authentication Using Kerberos, 838 8.7.5 Authentication Using Public-Key Cryptography, 840

8.8 EMAIL SECURITY*, 841

8.8.1 PGP—Pretty Good Privacy, 842 8.8.2 S/MIME, 846

8.9 WEB SECURITY, 846

8.9.1 Threats, 847 8.9.2 Secure Naming, 848 8.9.3 SSL—The Secure Sockets Layer, 853 8.9.4 Mobile Code Security, 857

8.10 SOCIAL ISSUES, 860

8.10.1 Privacy, 860 8.10.2 Freedom of Speech, 863 8.10.3 Copyright, 867

8.11 SUMMARY, 869

CONTENTS xvii 9 READING LIST AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 877

9.1 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING*, 877 9.1.1 Introduction and General Works, 878 9.1.2 The Physical Layer, 879 9.1.3 The Data Link Layer, 880 9.1.4 The Medium Access Control Sublayer, 880 9.1.5 The Network Layer, 881 9.1.6 The Transport Layer, 882 9.1.7 The Application Layer, 882 9.1.8 Network Security, 883

9.2 ALPHABETICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY*, 884

INDEX 905

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